Nervous+System

nervous system lecture objectives
 Sensory or afferent nerve fibers carry signals from various sensory receptors located throughout the body to the brain or spinal cord for integration where a response is selected. The instructions are then sent from the integration center through the motor or efferent division which controls muscles and glands in order to bring about a response. || Somatic: composed of somatic motor nerve fibers that conduct impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles. VOLUNTARY b/c it allows us to consciously control our skeletal muscles autonomic: visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. INVOLUNTARY b/c it happens without our conscious control. Two subdivisions:  Sympathetic (mobilizes) and Parasympathetic (conserves) (what one stimulates the other inhibits) ||
 * General functions of the nervous system || Describe the major functions of the nervous system: The nervous system bears a major responsibility for maintaining body homeostasis. Most importantly by monitoring, integrating, and responding to information in the environment. ||
 * Organization of the nervous system from both anatomical & functional perspectives || 1. Describe the nervous system as a control system identifying nervous system elements that are sensory receptors, the afferent pathway, control centers, the efferent pathway, and effector organs.
 * ^  || 2. Differentiate between the somatic and autonomic divisions of the nervous system.
 * Gross & microscopic anatomy of nervous tissue || 1. List the parts of the nervous system that constitute the central nervous system (CNS) and those that constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

CNS: the brain and spinal cord (occupy the dorsal cavity) PNS: everything else-- mostly nerves (bundles of axons) that extend from brain and spinal cord. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the brain. || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">neurons (unipolar: single short process that emerges from the cell body and divides t-like into proximal and distal branches., bipolar: <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">have two processes-- an axon and a dendrite that extend from opposite sides of the cell body. (most rare) & multipolar: three or more processes--one axon and the rest dendrites. Most common neuron type in humans with more than 99%--major neuron type in CNS ): || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">axon: impulse generating and conducting region. each neuron has only one axon, but axons may have occasional branches along their length called collaterals. axon terminals are the secretory region. when nerve impulse reaches them they release neurotransmitters via vesicles to be released into etracellular space. . Movement toward axon terminals is anterograde movement and back to soma is retrograde. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"> and dendrites: receptive regions, mostly chemical works because of extreme surface area. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Unipolar: sensory neurons that conduct impulses along afferent pathways to the CNS for interpretation (first-order sensory neurons). DORSAL ROOT GANGLION CELL <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Bipolar: sensory neurons located in the special sense organs. RETINAL CELL <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Multipolar: most are interneurons (association neurons) that conduct impulses within the CNS, integrating sensory input or motor output. Some are motor neurons that conduct impulses along efferent pathways from the CNS to an effector (muscle or gland) PURKINJE CELL OF CEREBELLUM (working mother example) || oligodendrocytes: have processes that form myelin sheaths (protein lipid that protects and insulates for faster signal) around CNS nerve fibers <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">astrocytes: most abundant, most versatile--synaptic endings cover nearby capillaries supporting and bracing the neurons and anchoring them to their nutrient supply lines. control chemical enviornment ependymal cells: "wrapping garment" line central cavities of brain and spinal cord. beating of cilia helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid that cushions brain and spinal cord microglia: small ovoid cells with long thorny processes. They monitor nearby neurons by touching them and migrate toward any that are troubled. They can transform into microphages and phagocytize microorganisms or neuronal debris--important becuase cells of immune system have no access to CNS. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">satellite cells: surround neuron cell bodies and perform the same functions of astrocytes in the CNS <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Schwann cells: surround and form myelin sheaths around the larger fibers in the peripheral nervous system (similar to oligodendrocytes). They are vital to regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fibers. gaps between schwann cells are nodes of ranvier || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Resting state: all gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Depolarization: Na+ channels open <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Repolarization: Na+ chanels are inactivating, and K+ channels open. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Hyperpolarization: some K+ channels remain open, and Na+ channels reset || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">When depolarization at the stimulation site reaches the threshold increased Na+ permeability results from increased channel openings leading to greater depolarization. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">absolute refractory period: from opening of the Na+ channels until the Na+ channels begin to reset to their original resting state. Enforces all or none event and one way transmission of AP <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Relative Refractory Period: interval following absolute. Most Na+ channels have returned to resting state, some K+ channels are still open and repolarization is occuring. A strong stimulus can cause more frequent generation of APs by intruding into the relative refractory period. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. action potential arrives at axon terminal <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. voltage gated Ca2+ channels open and allow Ca2+ to flood axon terminal <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. This causes vesicals to release their neurotransmitters by exocytosis <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to specific receptors on postsynaptic membrane || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. binding of neurotransmitter opens ion channels (binds with receptor proteins in the membrane), resulting in graded potentials. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Neurotransmitter effects are terminated by reuptake by astrocytes or when destroyed by enzymes as with norepinephrine, degredation by enzymes associated with post synaptic membrane or present in the synapse such as acetylcholine, or by diffusion away from the synapse || Excitatory Postsynaptic Postentials (EPSPs) are local graded depolarization events occur in membranes containing only chemically gated channels, as opposite movements of K+ and Na+ prevent accumulation of excessive positive charge inside the cell. The only function of EPSPs is to help trigger an AP distally a the axon hillock of the postsynaptic neuron.
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">2. With respect to the three structural types of
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a. Identify each type of neuron. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"> b. Identify soma (cell body): biosynthetic center and receptive region ,
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">c. State which parts of each type of neuron receive information, which parts integrate information, and which parts conduct the output signal of the neuron. The dendrites receive information, the soma integrates, and the axon conducts the output of the neuron.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">d. Describe the location of the cell bodies of each type of neuron within the nervous system.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">e. State a function of each type of neuron ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">f. Describe how the anatomy of each type of neuron supports its function. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">3. With respect to glial cells found in the CNS: ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a. List four types of CNS glial cells:
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">b. Describe functions for each of those cells. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">c. Explain how the anatomy of each CNS glial cell supports its function. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">4. With respect to glial cells found in the PNS: ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a. List two types of PNS glial cells
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">b. Describe functions for each of those cells. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">c. Explain how the anatomy of each PNS glial cell supports its function. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">5. Define the term nerve. a bundle of axons in the PNS. Neurons have extreme longevity, they are amitotic meaning they loose their ability to divide once they assume their roles as communicating links of the nervous system--meaning they cannot be replaced. and they have extremely high metabolic rate that requires continuous and abundant supplies of oxygen and glucose. Neurons cannot survive more than a couple of minutes without oxygen.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">6. Differentiate between a nerve and a CNS tract.: tracts are a collection of axons in the central nervous system having the same origin, termination, and function  ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Neurophysiology, including mechanism of resting membrane potential, production of action potentials, & impulse transmission || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1. Define permeability. when transport occurs through the cell membrane through leaky channels (passive) ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">2. Explain how ion channels affect neuron selective permeability. the cell membrane will only allow certain ions to pass through the membrane. changes in membrane potential can be produced by anything that alters ion concentrations on the two sides of the membrane, OR by anything that changes membrane permeability to any ion. Produce either graded or action potential. In depolarized regions of the membrane ion channels open up and allow the cell to be flooded.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">3. Contrast the relative concentrations of sodium, potassium and chloride ions inside and outside of a cell. At resting potential: concentration of Na ion is higher outside the cell and K ion is higher inside the cell. Chloride ions also exist mostly in the extracellular space and help keep the postive charges of the K+ balanced (Cl-)  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">4. Differentiate between a concentration gradient and an electrical potential. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">5. Define electrochemical gradient.: electrical gradients and concentration gradients make up the electrochemical gradient. Electrical gradients are when ions move toward an area of opposite electrical charge. Concentration gradients allow ions to diffuse passively from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration. Ion flows along electrochemical gradients underlie all the electrical phenomena in neurons.  ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">6. With respect to ion channels: ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a. Differentiate between passive and active ion channels. membrane proteins act as ion channels. each is selective to the type of ion or ions it allws to pass. leakage or nongated channels are always open and allow ions to pass passively. Chemically gated (ligand-gated channels) rely on a neurotransmitter to unlock them, voltage gated channels open and close in response to membrane potential, and mechanically gated channels open in response to physical deformation of the receptor (as in touch receptors). These still allow diffusion--a passive process. Sodium potassium pumps are active channels which help the cell eject three Na+ out of the cell and bring two K+ into the cell.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">b. Explain how passive ion channels cause development of the resting membrane potential in neurons. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">c. Differentiate between voltage-gated and chemically-gated ion channels. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">d. Describe the voltage-gated ion channels that are essential for development of the action potential. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">7. Discuss the sequence of events that must occur for an action potential to be generated. only cells with excitable membranes (nerve and muscular) can create action potential. Action potential is a brief reversal of membrane potential with a total amplitude of about 100mV.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">8. Describe the role of the sodium-potassium exchange pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential and making continued action potentials possible. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">9. Define threshold. critical level (often between -55 and -50 mV) at which depolarization becomes self-generating, urged on by positive feedback.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">10. Discuss the role of positive feedback in generation of the action potential.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">11. Interpret a graph showing the voltage vs. time relationship of an action potential, and relate the terms depolarize, repolarize, and hyperpolarize to the events of an action potential. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">12. With respect to the refractory periods: ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a. Define absolute and relative refractory periods.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">b. Explain the physiological basis of the absolute and relative refractory periods. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">c. Discuss the consequence of a neuron having an absolute refractory period. there are some times when a neuron cannot be restimulated. this also causes one way transmission and the "all or nothing" AP  ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">13. With respect to impulse conduction: ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a. Describe how local circuit currents cause impulse conduction in an unmyelinated axon. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">b. Explain how axon diameter and myelination affect conduction velocity. the larger the axon's diameter, the faster it conducts impulses, because they offer less resistance to the flow of local currents so adjacent areas of the membrane can more quickly be brought to threshold. Myelin acts as an insulator and dramatically increases the rate of AP propagation. APs are generated only at nodes of Ranvier  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">c. Describe saltatory conduction. saltare=to leap. this is the type of conduction at nodes of Ranvier because electrical signal appears to jump. this is the opposite of continuous conduction on unmyelinated axons  ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Neurotransmitters & their roles in synaptic transmission || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1. Identify the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells at a synapse. Presynaptic neurons conduct impulses toward the synapse, and the postsynaptic neuron transmits the electrical signal away from the synapse ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">2. List the structures that comprise a chemical synapse. presynaptic neuron has knoblike axon terminal (bouton) which contains synaptic vesicles containing thousands of neurotransmitter molecules each. The postsynaptic neuron posses a neurotransmitter receptor region on the membrane of a dendrite or the cell body. Between the two is a synaptic cleft-- a fluid filled space  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">3. Describe the synaptic (axon) terminal. bouton which contains vesicles, mitochondrion, and voltage gated Ca2+ channels. Ca2+ cause vesicles to release neurotransmitters by exocytosis  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">4. Restate the steps that lead from the action potential arriving in the synaptic terminal to the release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">5. Discuss the relationship between a neurotransmitter and its receptor.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">6. Explain how the receptors for neurotransmitters are related to chemically-gated ion channels. They are opened in the same way, with some sort of substance bonding to the active site of a transmembrane protein, which subsequently changes shape and allows an ion channel to open  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">7. Describe the events of synaptic transmission in proper chronological order. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">8. Define excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) and interpret graphs showing the voltage vs. time relationship of an EPSP and an IPSP.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) happen when binding of neurotransmitters at inhibitory synapses reduces the postsynaptic neuron's ability to generate an AP. Usually they induce hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane by making the membrane more permeable to K+ or to Cl-, making the charge on the inner face of the membrane more negative, and less and less likely to "fire" || temporal summation: occurs when one or more presynaptic neurons transmit impulses in rapid fire order <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">spatial summation: occurs when the postsynaptic neuron is stimulated at the same time by a large number of terminals || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Synaptic potentiation can be viewed as a learning process that increases the efficiency of neurotransmission along a particular pathway, playing a special role in memory and learning. Synaptic potentiation occurs when repeated or continuous use of a synapse enhances the presynaptic neuron's ability to excite the postsynaptic neuron, producing larger than expected postsynaptic potentials. This is different than APs in that they are an "all or nothing" response, and cannot really be made more powerful with regular use. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. neurotransmitter (1st messenger) binds and activates receptor <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. recptor activates G protein <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. G protein activates adenlyate cyclase <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. adenylate cylase converts ATP to cAMP (2nd messenger) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 5a. cAMP changes membrane permeability by opening or closing ion channels 5b. cAMP activates enzymes 5c. cAMP activates specific GENES produces long lasting effects, works directly on DNA, prolonged--ideal basis for some types of learning. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Common Exitatory Neurotransmitters in CNS m(cause depolarization): Glutamates <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Inhibitory (cause hyperpolarization): amino acids GABA and glycine || catecholamines (dopamine: feeling good, norepinephrine: feeling good, epinephrine: indolamines (serotonin: sleep, apetite, nausea, mood regulation, headaches histamine: wakefulness, appetite control, learning and memory)  play a role in emotional behavior and biological clock. Imbalances of these neurotransmitters can cause mental illness. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">9. Explain temporal and spatial summation of synaptic potentials.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">10. Explain how movement of sodium ions alone, or movement of both sodium and potassium ions, across the postsynaptic cell membrane can excite a neuron. by creating an excess positive charge inside the neuron  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">11. Explain how movement of potassium or chloride ions across the postsynaptic cell membrane can inhibit a neuron. it makes the inside of the membrane increasingly negative and therefore less likely to fire  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">12. Compare and contrast synaptic potentials with action potentials.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">13. Explain how a single neurotransmitter may be excitatory at one synapse and inhibitory at another. This depends on the receptor proteins and their specific programming. Some will close a channel, others will open a channel.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">14. Describe the mechanism by which neurotransmitters may have indirect (metabotropic) effects on postsynaptic cells. G Protein linked receptors cause formation of an intracellular second messenger (sometimes cyclic AMP) that brings about the cell's response.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">16. List the most common excitatory neurotransmitter(s) in the CNS and the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter(s) in the CNS.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">17. Propose a possible CNS function for each biogenic amine neurotransmitter
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">18. Compare and contrast chemical and electrical synapses. Electrical synapses are much less common than chemical. Found in heart. Use gap junctions to allow free movement of ions. Transmission across these synapses is very rapid and provide a simple means of synchronizing the activity of all interconnected neurons.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Chemical synapses are specialized for release and reception of chemical neurotransmitters. ||
 * <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Sensory receptors & their roles

<span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">chapter 13 || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Describe exteroceptors, interoceptors and proprioceptors in terms of the general location of each in the body and the origin of the stimuli that each receives. || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">pain receptors (nociceptors), temperature receptors, mechanoreceptors (including proprioceptors and barorceptors/pressoreceptors), chemoreceptors, and photoreceptors. || Telencephalon: Cerebrum: cerebral hemispheres (cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) LATERAL VENTRICLES Diencephalon: Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), retina THIRD VENTRICLE Mesencephalon: Brain stem: midbrain CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT Metencephalon: Brain stem: pons, Cerebellum FOURTH VENTRICLE Myelencephalon: Brainstem: medulla oblongata FOURTH VENTRICLE (posterior portion of neural tube forms spinal cord and CENTRAL CANAL) || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">cerebral hemispheres: localize and interpret sensory inputs, control voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity, intellectual and emotional processing diencephalon: Thalamus: relay station (switchboard operator) and memory processing. hypothalamus: integrates autonomic neruvous system: temperature, food, water, biological rhythms, hormones, limbic Brain stem: midbrain: pathway between higher and lower brain centers, Pons conduction pathway between cerebrum and cerebellum, respiration ; Medulla oblongata: conduction between higher brain centers and spinal cord. heart rate, blood vessels, respiratory, vomiting, coughing cerebellum: provides precise timing for skeletal muscle contraction for smooth coordinated movements. fine motor. no awareness of its functioning || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Frontal Lobe: emotions, working memory for object recall, multitask problems, PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Parietal Lobe: somatosensory cortex ( temperature, pressure, pain) touch receptors, <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Occipital Lobe: visual cortex <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Temporal Lobe: auditory cortex and association, olfactory cortex <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Insula: Gustatory Cortex (taste), equilibrium ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">2. Describe each of the following types of receptors, indicating what sensation it detects and giving an example of where it can be found in the body:
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Explain the generator potential that occurs when receptors for general senses are stimulated. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Describe the relationship between unipolar neurons and receptors for general senses. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 5. Differentiate between the site of action potential generation in a unipolar neuron and a multipolar neuron ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 6. Explain the phenomenon of adaptation. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 7. Compare and contrast receptors for the special senses with receptors for general sensation. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Division, origin, & function of component parts of the brain || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. List the five developmental regions of the brain and identify the major areas of the adult brain that arise from each region.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Correlate functions with each major area of the adult brain.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Describe the orientation of the brain relative to bones of the skull. Working anterior to posterior: frontal bone/frontal lobe, parietal bone covers parietal lobe, occipital bone covers occipital lobe, temporal bone covers temporal lobe  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Identify the five lobes of the cerebral cortex and describe how the motor and sensory functions of the cerebrum are distributed among the lobes.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 5. Explain why the sensory and motor homunculi are relevant clinically. first, they show how the body is upside down and backwards. The right hemisphere recieves information for activity on the left side of the body. The motor homonculus view of the primary motor cortex shows how broad areas of the primary cortex are devoted to leg, arm, torso, and head, with basic related muscle groups centered close to one another. With regard to the somatosensory homunculus the amount of sensory cortex devoted to a particular body region is related to that region's sensitivity (the face--especially the lips, and fingertips are the most sensitive body areas in humans)  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 6. Discuss the concept of cerebral hemispheric specialization and the role of the corpus callosum in connecting the two halves of the cerebrum. both hemispheres are used for almost every activity, but there is a division of labor where each hemisphere has unique abilities (lateralization) one dominates every task. cerebral dominance refers to the side dominant for language (most people this is the left side also controls math and logic) right is more free spirited, visual spatial skills, intuition, emotion, artistic and, musical skills. Most left cerebral dominated are right handed. The corpus callosum is a commissure connecting corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres enabling them to function as a coordinated whole.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 7. Describe the location and functions of the limbic system. cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, and hippocampus make up the limbic association area. the limbic system provides emotional impact, feelings of fear, memories  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 8. Describe the parts of the brain involved in storage of long term memory and discuss possible mechanisms of memory consolidation. specific peices of each memory are stored near regions of the brain that tneed them so new imputs can be quickly associated with the old. Visual in occipital, auditory in temporal, etc. Cortical neurons dispatch impulses to medial temporal lobe (hippocampus) and surrounding temporal cortical areas. Major role in memory consolidation and access by communitg with the thalamus and prefrontal cortex  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 9. Describe the location and functions of the reticular activating system. certain reticular neurons send a continuous stream of impulses to the cerebral corte, keeping the cortex alert and conscious and enhancing its excitability. Impulses from all the great ascending sensory tracts synapse with RAS neurons, keeping them active and enhancing their arousing effect on the cerebrum (study in busy cafeteria)  ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Protective roles of the cranial bones, meninges, & cerebrospinal fluid || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Describe how the bones of the skull protect the brain. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Identify the meninges and describe their functional relationship to the brain and cranial bones. Three connective tissue membranes that lie external to the CNS organs to cover and protect the CNS, protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses, contain cerebrospinal fluid, and form partitions in the skull.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Dura mater: tough mother, periosteal layer and meningeal layer seperate to create dural venous sinuses that collect venous blood from the brain and direct it into the internal jugular veins of the neck <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #808000; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Arachnoid mater: seperated by subdural space and subarachnoid space. weblike extensions. Subarachnoid space filled with CSF and contains largest blood vessels serving the brain. Arachnoid villi protrude through dura mater and vent CSF to venus blood Pia Mater: gentle mother, delicate connective tissue, richly invested with tiny blood vessels. clings tightly to the brain like celophane || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">I. Olfactory <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">II. Optic <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">III. Occulomotor <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">IV. Trochlear <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">V. Trigeminal <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">VI. Abducens <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">VII. Facial <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">VIII. Vestibulochlear <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">IX. Glossopharyengeal
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Describe the functions of cerebrospinal fluid, as well as the details of its production, its circulation within the central nervous system, and its ultimate reabsorption into the bloodstream. CSF provides a liquid cushion, CSF nourishes brain, PH is different in brain than blood, which is why the blood brain barrier is important. Choroid plexuses hang in each ventrical and form CSF as a filtrate from the blood. . CSF flows through ethe ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the spinal cord. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space where it is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villa where it returns waste such as carbon dioxide to the blood stream where it can be disposed of.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Describe the structural basis for, and the importance of the blood brain barrier. protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable enviornment for the brain. brain pH is different than blood pH. Blood borne substances in brain's capillaries must pass through three layers before they reach the neurons: (1)the endothelium of capillary wall, (2) a relatively thick basal lamina surrounding the external face of each capillary and the (3) bulbous feet of the astrocytes clinging to the capillaries. Tight junctions in endothelial cells join seamlessly together forming barrier. (ineffective against fats, fatty acids, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other fatsoluble molecules (why alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics affect brain)  ||
 * <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Structure & function of cranial nerves || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. List the cranial nerves by name and number.

<span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">X. Vagus <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">XI. Accessory XII. Hypoglossal ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Describe the specific functions of each of the cranial nerves and classify each as sensory, motor or mixed sensory bring afferent signals to CNS, motor, carry efferent signals to effectors, mixed nerves contain both fiber types. Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Describe the location of the cranial nerve nuclei and the ganglia associated with the cranial nerves. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Propose how knowledge of the anatomy of cranial nerve nuclei can be used to help pinpoint damage to particular regions of the brain stem. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Anatomy of the spinal cord & spinal nerves || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord and spinal nerves and specify their location relative to the anatomy of the skeletal system. spinal cord, enclosed in vertebral column extends from foramen magnum of skull to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebrae ending in the conus medullaris. The cauda equina delivers lumbar and sacral spinal nerves. The filum terminal is the extension of pia mater that anchors to the coccyx. Each spinal nerve exits from the vertebral column by passing superior to its corresponding vertebra through the intervertebral foramen. Enlargements at cervial and lumbar. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Identify the anatomical features seen in a cross sectional view of the spinal cord ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Contrast the relative position of gray matter and white matter in the spinal cord with the corresponding arrangement of gray and white matter in the brain. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Identify the dorsal root ganglia, dorsal and ventral roots, and spinal nerves. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 5. Discuss how the structures root, nerve, ramus, plexus, tract and ganglion relate to one another. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 6. List the four spinal nerve plexuses and give examples of nerves that emerge from each. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 7. Distinguish between ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 8. Describe the concept of dermatomes and explain why they are clinically significant. ||
 * <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Reflexes & their roles in nervous system function || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Define the term reflex. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of a reflex arc. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">3. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of reflexes: intrinsic (inborn) reflexes vs. learned reflexes, somatic vs. visceral reflexes, monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic reflexes, and ipsilateral vs. contralateral reflexes. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Explain the terms spinal reflex and intersegmental spinal reflex. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">5. Describe a stretch reflex, a flexor (withdrawal) reflex, and a crossed-extensor reflex, and name all components of each reflex arc. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">6. Demonstrate a stretch reflex (e.g., patellar or plantar) ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">7. Propose how specific reflexes would be used in clinical assessment of nervous system function. ||
 * <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Physiology of sensory & motor pathways in the brain & spinal cord || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Describe the locations and functions of the first-, second- and third-order neurons in a sensory pathway. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Describe the locations and functions of the upper and lower motor neurons in a motor pathway. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Explain how decussation occurs in sensory and motor pathways & predict how decussation impacts the correlation of brain damage and symptoms in stroke patients. ||
 * <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Functions of the autonomic nervous system || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Discuss the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and the general physiological roles of each. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Contrast the anatomy of the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, including central nervous system outflow locations, ganglia locations, pre- and post-ganglionic neuron relative lengths, and ganglionic and effector neurotransmitters. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Describe examples of specific effectors dually innervated by the two branches of the autonomic nervous system and explain how each branch influences function in a given effector. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 4. Describe examples of effectors innervated by only the sympathetic branch or the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system and explain how that branch by itself influences function in a given effector. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 5. Contrast sympathetic innervation of the adrenal gland with sympathetic innervation of other effectors. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 6. Describe visceral reflex arcs, including structural and functional details of sensory and motor (autonomic) components. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 7. Differentiate between cholinergic and adrenergic nerve fibers and discuss the physiological interactions of transmitters released by these neurons with specific cholinergic and adrenergic receptor subtypes. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 8. Propose clinical uses of specific drugs that act at cholinergic and adrenergic receptor subtypes. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 9. Describe major parasympathetic and/or sympathetic physiological effects on target organs. ||
 * <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Comparisons of somatic & autonomic nervous systems || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1. Distinguish between the effectors of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 2. Contrast the cellular anatomy of the somatic and autonomic motor pathways. ||
 * ^  || <span style="background-color: #c0c0c0; color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 3. Name the neurotransmitters released at synapses with effector organs in the somatic and autonomic motor pathways and classify each effector response as excitatory or inhibitory. ||
 * =<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Application of homeostatic mechanisms = || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the nervous system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">2. Explain how the nervous system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis ||
 * =<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders = || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1. Predict factors or situations affecting the nervous system that could disrupt homeostasis. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Arial,verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the nervous system could not maintain homeostasis ||