home

= = =Hello Home Group 7!= //Welcome to our safe, cozy, knowledge-filled wikispace.//

Here's a reminder of some of the thoughts we had in class about how we'd like to organize:
 * 1) I have copied and pasted our objectives on to this page. You should be able to click at the end of an objective, press enter, and begin your answer without having to rephrase the objective. Please see example below: I have chosen this sickly green color for my voice. Everyone should pick a color that will be legible on the page and use it any time you comment so that we know who's speaking. This way, if perhaps Ashley had chosen blue, I could see her response to my answer for #1.
 * 2) We discussed including the page number(s) where you found the information so they could be easily referenced later.

Contact Info
Shelley Asbury 540 520 3611 ShelleyLR@gmail.com Erin Ferguson 540 761 7833 eekf4@yahoo.com Sarah Garrison 540 309 9905 (txt ok) sarahcgarrison@gmail.com Ashley Gish 540 581 2668 (txt ok) blndbombers@yahoo.com //Tina Ryder 540 521 5639// TmRYDER@hotmail.com Crystal Lane 540 561 2648 lanec76@gmail.com

General Comments
1/25 Hey all, please feel free to change how I have things set up here. I listed everyone's contact info so it would be easily available if we wanted to set up study groups or whatever. I would be interested in meeting on Saturday with anyone who wanted to go over this stuff. I live in West Salem but I'll be happy to meet someplace more central. Maybe Second Helpings on Williamson 1ish? Anybody Interested?

I can probably meet up Saturday. Can we do it any earlier, say around 1100? Let me know. I will work on plugging in my answers tonight after work. I hope everyone is having a good day! *Ashley*

As of 10 am on Saturday I have no takers for a study group. I'm going to plan on studying at home where the coffee has already been paid for : ) if anybody decides they'd like to meet up after all, shoot me a text and we'll figure something out. Cheers!

Has anyone attempted the quiz yet? If so, how did it go?

FYI, I just took the quiz and bombed it... there is a lot of stuff on the DNA model on there. Most of it is from chapters 2 and 3. Good luck!

Hey its Tina, I took and did great. Took all the time to look all up though. It waas tough!!!!!!!!!
I think the quiz was pretty tough, really dreading the test! Anyone doing a study group this week ? Good luck on quiz tomorrow.

Found a website to help study the bones...

 * bodyquiz**.net/human-**body**/_design/main/_.../**bones**/en-**bones**-**quiz**1

chapter 1 lecture objectives
Facing forward, feet slightly apart, hands at sides palms forward. With body erect. Thx, see you //are// good at this Ashley! || **Sagittal plane:** runs longitudinally and divides body into right and left parts. Down the midline of the body this is called a midsagittal or median**.** **Frontal (Coronal):** divides body into anterior and posterior parts **Transverse**: runs horizontally dividing body into superior and inferior parts. Yields **cross sections**. || **Dorsal Cavity ** .,.,A. **Cranial Cavity**: brain .,.,B. **Vertebral or Spinal Cavity**: protects spinal cord **Ventral Body Cavity ** .,.,A. **Thoracic Cavity**: separated by diaphragm. Heart and lungs protected by rib cage. .,.,B. **Abdominopelvic Cavity** .,.,.,.,.,.,.,I. **abdominal cavity**: stomach, intestines, liver, other organs .,.,.,.,.,.,.,II. **pelvic cavity**: partially enclosed by bony pelvis. Contains reproductive organs, bladder, rectum **Oral Cavity**(mouth): tongue & teeth, continuous with digestive tube which opens to exterior at anus **Nasal Cavity**: within and posterior to the nose, part of the passages of the respiratory system **Orbital Cavities**: in the skull, house the eyes, present them in anterior position **Middle Ear Cavities**: medial to an eardrum and carved into bony skull. Contain tiny bones to transmit sound vibration to hearing organ in inner ear **Synovial Cavities**: joint cavaties enclosed w/in fibrous capsules surrounding freely movable joints and secrete fluid to reduce friction (b/w vertebrae, hips, knees, etc) || Right Hypochondriac: liver...,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,., .,,.Epigastric Region: Stomach .,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,Left Hypochondriac: Diaphragm Right Lumbar: ascending colon of large intestine .,.,Umbilical Region: Small intestine, transverse colon of large intestine.,.Left lumbar: Descending colon of Large Intestine. Right Iliac (inguinal) Cecum, Appendix.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,., Hypogastric (pubic) Region: urinary bladder.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,Left iliac (inguinal): initial part of sigmoid colon || Right Upper Quadrant: Liver, Gallbladder, Diaphragm .,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,Left Upper Quadrant: Stomach, Diaphragm Right Lower Quadrant: Cecum, Appendix, parts of small and large intestines.,.,.,.,.,.,.,. Left Lower Quadrant: urinary bladder, colon, intestine || **Anterior/Posterior** (front/back) In humans anterior are forward (chest, face, abdomen) Posterior: backside Ex: Spine is posterior to the heart. **Medial/Laterial** (toward the midline/away from midline) Ex: sternum is medial to ribs, ear is lateral to nose **Cephalad (cranial)/Caudal** (toward the head/toward the tail) in humans terms are interchangable w/superior/inferior. w/4 legs: same as anterior/ posterior **Dorsal/Ventral** (backside/belly side) in humans: same as anterior/posterior. w/4 legs: same as inferior/superior **Proximal/Distal** (nearer the trunk or attached end/farther from trunk or point of attachment) ex: fingers distal to elbow. knee proximal to toes. **Superficial (external)/Deep (internal)** (toward or at body surface/ away from body surface) ex: skin is superficial to skeletal muscles. lungs deep to ribcage || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**anatomy**: studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. The Form <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**physiology**: how the body parts work and carry out life sustaining activities. The Function || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">the apical surface of the simple columnar epithelium in the digestive tract features microvilli which increase the surface area and help the tissue efficently absorb nutrients || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Chemical level, Cellular level, Tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organismal level || water, neuron, nervous tissue, brain, nervous system, human || **Integumentary**: skin, hair, nails. //Synthesizes Vitamin D, houses cutaneous (pain, pressure) receptors, sweat and oil glands// **Skeletal System**: joints, bones. //Protect and support. Blood cells formed w/in bones. Bones store minerals.// **Muscular**: skeletal muscles. //allows manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression. maintains posture, produces heat// **Lymphatic System (Immunity)**: Red Bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes. //Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood, houses white blood cells, cleans up debris in lymphatic system, attacks foreign substances in body w/white blood cells// **Respiratory System**: nasal cavity, pharnx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus. //Supplies blood with O2, removes CO2// **Digestive System**: Oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus. //Breaks down food into absorbable units which enter bloodstream for distribution to cells. Indigestibles eliminated as feces.// **Nervous System**: Brain, spinal cord, nerves. //Fast acting control center of body. activates muscles and glands.// **Endocrine System**: pineal glad, pituitary gland, thyroid glad, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, testis, ovary. //Secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and metabolism// **Cardiovascular System**: heart, blood vessels. **transport blood which carries O2, CO2, nutrients, waste, etc. Heart pumps blood.** **Urinary System**: kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra. //eliminates nitrogenous wastes from body. regulates h20, electrolyte and pH balance of blood// **Male Reproductive system**: prostate gland, penis, ductus diferens, scrotum, testis: //offspring. testes produce sperm and male sex hormone. glands aid in delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract// **Female Reproductive System**: mammary glands, ovary, uterine tube, uterus, vagina. //ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. site for fertilization and develpment of fetus. mammary glands produce milk to nourish newborn// ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Anatomical position || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Describe a person in anatomical position. pg.13 Text Book
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Describe how to use the terms right and left in anatomical reference. We refer to the subject's right and left. For example, as I face a subject, their left lumbar region is on my right hand side.  ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Body planes & sections || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Identify the various planes in which a body might be dissected. A **section** is a cut made along an imaginary surface or line called a **plane.**
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Describe the appearance of a body presented along various planes. Midsadittal section shows intestines, rectum, and vertebral column. Frontal section through torso would show lungs, liver, heart, stomach, spleen. Transverse section through torso: liver, spinal cord, aorta, pancreas, spleen, subcutaneous fat layer.  ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Body cavities & regions. || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Describe the location of the body cavities and identify the major organs found in each cavity.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. List and describe the location of the major anatomical regions of the body.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Describe the location of the four abdominopelvic quadrants and the nine abdominopelvic regions and list the major organs located in each.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Directional terms || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. List and define the major directional terms used in anatomy.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Describe the location of body structures, using appropriate directional terminology. See examples above  ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Basic terminology || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Define the terms anatomy and physiology.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Give specific examples to show the interrelationship between anatomy and physiology.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Describe the location of structures of the body, using basic regional and systemic terminology. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Levels of organization || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Describe**//,//** in order from simplest to most complex, the major levels of organization in the human organism.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Give an example of each level of organization.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Survey of body systems || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. List the organ systems of the human body and their major components.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Describe the major functions of each organ system. see above  ||

chapter 2 and 3 lecture objectives
<span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**atomic number**: number of protons in an atom's nucleus, written as a subscript to the left of its atomic symbol-this is the same as its number on the periodic table. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**mass number**: the sum of the masses of an atom's protons and neutrons (each has a mass of 1amu) Usually written as a superscript. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**atomic weight**: an average of mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element, taking into account their relative abundance in nature. || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Ion**-- <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">an atom that has a non neutral charge due the addition or subtraction of an electron (s)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Atoms & molecules |||||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. With respect to the structure of an atom: ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a. Describe the charge, mass, and relative location of electrons, protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged and found in the nucleus with neutrons which are neutral, resulting in a positively charged nucleus which contains 99.9% of an atom's mass. Electrons are negatively charged, very small, and wiz around the nucleus in an electron cloud. Atoms have the same number of protons as electrons resulting in an electrically neutral particle.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b. Relate the number of electrons in an electron shell to an atom’s chemical stability and its ability to form chemical bonds atoms want to have 8 electrons in their valence shell. Atoms with three or fewer electrons will give them up to atoms with four or more electrons in their valence shells (greedy, grabby) (EXPLANATION NEEDS WORK) .  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c. Explain how ions and isotopes are produced by changing the relative number of specific subatomic particles. atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons are Isotopes-- the number of neutrons present affects atomic weight. An ion is an atom that has a non neutral charge due the addition or subtraction of an electron (s).  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">d. Distinguish among the terms atomic number, mass number and atomic weight.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Compare and contrast the terms ions, electrolytes, free radicals, isotopes and<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> radioisotopes

<span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Electrolyte**-- all ions are electrolytes-- they conduct an electrical current in a solution (salts are common examples) <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Free Radical**-- highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons. Regulated by peroxisomes <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Isotope**- forms of the same atom that differ in the number of neutrons present <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Radioisotope**- an isotope that demonstrates radioactivity: when large, unstable isotopes decompose spontaneously into more stable forms. A tiny explosion ejects particles from the atom's nucleus. || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> **Elements** are unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. **Atoms** are the building blocks of elements, and they combine in groups called molecules of that element. **Molecules** made of different atoms bonded together are **compounds**. || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">and hydrogen bonds: || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**I** **onic**: bond between two atoms resulting from the transfer of electrons. Atom with the net positive charge is the Cation, net negative Anion. Opposite charges attract, keeping the atoms close to one another, but because they are not neutral they will still react. **Na+Cl-** <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Covalen**t: when electrons are shared so that each atom is able to fill it's electron shell part of the time. If the sharing is equal, we have **nonpolar covalent CO2**. If one atom gets the electrons more than the other, polarity occurs from corresponding electronegativity and electropositivity. **H20** <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**Hydrogen**: more like attractions than true bonds. A bridge forms between a slightly positive H atom that has already bonded covalently to an electronegative atom (usually hydrogen or oxygen) and another electronegative atom. Too weak to bond atoms together, they are important intramolecular bonds. **Surface tension, proteins and DNA us Hbonds to stabilize their structures** || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">.,.,.1. **High Heat Capacity**: absorbs and relases large amounts of heat before changing appreciably in temperature iteslf. Water redistributes heat throughout body for homeostasis <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">.,.,.2. **High heat of Vaporization**: large amounts of heat must be absorbed into water to break hydrogen bonds and change liquid to gas. This makes sweating highly efficient, as large amounts of heat are required to move water from skin into water vapor. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">.,.,3. **Polar Solvent Properties**: (UNIVERSAL SOLVENT) biological molecules don't react chemically unless they are in a solution--basically all of the body's chemical reactions depend on water. Because of shape water forms hydration layers around large charged molecules such as proteins shielding them from other charged particles. Protein water mixtures are biological colloids (blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid) moves through body with adhesion, cohesion and capillary action. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">,.,.4. **Reactivity**- hydrolysis reactions add one water to each bond in food to chemically digest. When a large carbohydrate or protein molecule is synthesized from a smaller molecuse, a water molecue is removed for every bond formed (dehydration synthesis) <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">,.,.,5. **Cushioning**-- hydrogen bonds make water "hard" which makes water an excellent protective cushion || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**pH:** relative concentration of hydrogen ions in various fluids <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> **acid:** a substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. high hydrogen concentration. sour, burn, dissolve metals. Hydrochloric acid, lemon juice, wine. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**base**:a substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amoutns. bitter, slippery. sodium hydroide, ovencleaner, ammonia, bleach <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**buffer**: proteins and other types of molecules, the kidneys, and the lungs resist abrupt swings in pH by releasing hydrogen ions when pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions when the pH drops in order to maintain homeostasis <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> and give examples of physiological significance. || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Base: Sodium Hydroxide: pH=14 <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Neutral: Blood: pH=7.4 <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Acid: Hydrochloric Acid: pH=0 || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">nucleic acids: || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides are the monomers of other carbohydrates. Glycogen is a polysaccharide (polymer). Structure resembles tree branches. Ready to use cellular fuel. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Proteins:monomers are amino acids. dipeptide, tripeptide, polypeptide. globular. Enzymes are proteins. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Lipids: fatty acids and glycerol are the monomers. Triglyceride, phospholipds. long chains. Protect our organ systems from cold and friction. Storage for fuel. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Nucleic Acids: Made up of nucleotides. form DNA and RNA. Double Helix structure. Contain our body's genetic information. Adenine-->Thymine (Uracil in RNA), Cytosine-->Guanine || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Glucose enters the cell and is physhorylated by the enzyme hexokinase, catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from AYP to the number six carbon of the sugar, producing glucose-6-phosphate. Because of it's new electrical charge the phosphate group is trapped in the cell because the plasma membrane is impermeable to ions. The cell has used ATP as an investment of the future production of ATP during the ten steps of glycolysis.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Compare and contrast the terms atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Chemical bonding |||||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">With respect to non-polar covalent, polar covalent, ionic,
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a. List each type of bond in order by relative strength. bonds are energy relationships between electrons of reacting atoms. non polar covalent (Strongest), polar covalent, ionic, hydrogen (weakest)  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b. Explain the mechanism of each type of bond
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c. Provide biologically significant examples of each. see above  ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Inorganic compounds & solutions || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Discuss the physiologically important properties of water.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Distinguish among the terms **solution** : homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids or solids, **solute** : substance present in smaller solutions in a smaller amount than the solvent , **solvent**: dissolving medium. it is usually substance present in greatest amount . , **colloid/emulsion**: also called emulsions are heterogenous mixtures. appear transllucent or milky. Jello . **suspension**: heterogeneous mixtures with large often visible solutes that settle out. blood  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Define the term salt and give examples of physiological significance. an ionic compound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than the hydroyl ion (OH-) When salt is dissolved in water it breaks down into its ionic components. COmmonly in body: NaCl, CaCO3 calcium carbonate, KCl potassium chloride. calcium phosphates make bones and teeth hard--most common salts in body. electrolyte properties of sodium and potassium ions are essential for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction. Ionic iron forms hemoglobin that transport oxygen through blood  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. Define the terms
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">5. State acidic, neutral, and alkaline pH values.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Organic compounds || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Define the term organic molecule. any molecule containing carbon (exceptions: carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are considered inorganic) ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers. Polymers are chain like molecules made up of many similar or repeating units (monomers) which are joined together by hydration syntheses.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Define and give examples of ** dehydration ** **synthesis**: a H atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the monomer it is to be joined with. As a covalent bond unites the monomers a water molecule is released <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> and <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**hydrolysis reactions** when monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">. Hydrolysis is important because it breaks down disaccharide which are too large to pass through cell membranes, into to  <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">absorb-able simple sugars ||
 * ^  |||||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. With respect to carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a. Identify the monomers and polymers. EXPLANATION NEEDS WORK
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b. Compare and contrast general molecular structure. see above  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c. Provide specific examples. see above  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">d. Identify dietary sources. see above  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">e. Discuss physiological and structural roles in the human body. see above  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">5. Describe the four levels of protein structure and discuss the importance of protein shape for protein function . primary: line, secondary: coiled, tertiary: globbed, quarternary: two or more polypeptide chains with their own tertiary structure combine to form a functional protein. Their shape allows enzymes for example, to carry other parts without breaking down.   ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">6. Demonstrate factors that affect enzyme activity, including denaturation, and interpret graphs showing the effects of various factors on the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Temperature and changes in pH can cause enzymes to unfold, or denature. inhibitors to the active sites also affect the productivity of enzymes  ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Energy transfer using ATP || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Describe the generalized reversible reaction for release of energy from ATP and explain the role of ATP in the cell.

<span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Phase 1: sugar activates by phosphorylation. Phase 2: Sugar cleavage. Phase 3: Sugar oxidation and formation of ATP <span style="background-color: #ffff00; color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Appendix D A5-A7 || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions. Tight junction is a permeable junction that encircles the cell and prevents fluids and most molecules from moving betweem cells. Desmosomes are anchoring junctions that bind cells together. Gap junctions are communicating juctions that allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">5. List several roles of membrane receptorsand that of voltage-sensitive channel proteins. Roles are... contact signaling and chemical signaling. Voltage-sensitive channel proteins serves as an electrical signal. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">6. Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained. Membrane potential is...Electrical potential energy resulting from the seperation of oppositely charged ions. RMP is the result of diffusion which causes ionic imbalances that polarzie the membrane. Active transport processes are what maintain that membrane potential. || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">processes – simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">osmosis, active transport, exocytosis, endocytosis, <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">phagocytosis, pinocytosis, & filtration: I have combined a-d Simple diffusion- nonpolar and lipid substances diffuse through lipid bilayer. Oxygen increases in blood than in tissue cells. Kinetic energy required, oxygen, co2, and fat soluble vitamins diffuse through bilayer. Ex. movement of fats, o2, co2, through lipid portion of membrane. Pg 69 and 72 Facilitated diffusion- transported substances binds protein carriers in membrane and move across or moves through water filled channels. Kinetic energy required. Ex. Movement of glucose and some ions into cell Pg 69 Osmosis- a solvent water through specific channel protein or through lipid bilayer. Kinetic energy required. Movement of water in and out of cells directly through lipid phase of membrane. Pg 70 Active transport- requires carrier proteins that combine with transported substances. Move solutes (ions). Ex. sodium,k+, calcium against the gradient. Uses ATP. Pg. 73 Exocytosis- moves particles that are out of the cell. (cell interior-cell exterior) Uses ATP. Secretion of neurotransmittors, mucus; ejection of cell waste. Pg 73 Endocytosis- moves substances within the cell (cell exterior-cell interior). Pg 76 Phagocytosis- cell engulfs large or solid material (clump of bacteria, cell debris) || Hypertonic- cells lose water by osmosis and shrink in hypertonic solution --higher concentration of solutes Isotonic- cells retain normal size and shape--same solute concentration Hypotonic- cells take water through osmosis until they bloat and burst --contains decreased concentration Pg 71 || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">human cells: || <span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Mitochondria Ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes || <span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Mitochondria- Threadlike or lozenge shaped membranous organelles. Ribosomes- a small, dark-staining granules composted of proteins and a variety of RNA's. They are two globular subunits that fit together like an acorn. Endoplasmic reticulum- an extensive system of connected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled cavities. Golgi apparatus- stacked and flattened membranous sacs, shaped like hollow dinner plates,associated with swarms of time membranous vesicles. Lysosomes-spherical membranous organelles containing digestive enzymes. || <span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The function of an organelle is to maintain an internal environment different from that which is within the cell. The lipid makeup of the organelle allows its membrane to recognize and interact with other organelles. || <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The process of breaking down food fuels (carbohydrates, primarily glucose) within the cells (breaking their bonds) and harnessing their released energy in the form of ATP. pg. 919, 923 || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">compare and contrast energy input, efficiency of energy production, oxygen use, by-products and cellular location. <span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">922-924 Krebs (TCA citric acid): Fed by chemical energy or glucose and pyruvic acid, yields small amounts ATP and CO2 Electron Transport Chain: accounts for most of the ATP generated by cellular respiration. electrons are picked up by coenzymes and transferred to the cristae membrane where oxidative phosphorylation occurs || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">interphase and the stages of mitosis: || Interphase: centrioles replicate, DNA is replicated. Preparations for mitosis are completed. Early Prophase: Cromatin condenses forming chromosomes which are held together at the centromere. This also acts as a assembly focal point for the miotic spindles. Late Prophase: Spindles interact with chromosomes and the microtubles are pulled in opposite directions causing the chromosomes to gather in the center. Metaphase: Centromes are at opposite poles of the cell. Chromosomes cluster in the middle. Anaphase: Chromosomes are pulled towards the pole they face and polar microtubles lengthen causing the poles to push further apart. Telophase: Identical sets of chromosomes @ opposite ends start to uncoil. A nuclear envelope forms in the center pinching the one cell into two. This is where cytokinesis begins and seperates the two cells completely. || Interphase: Prophase: Metaphase: Anaphase: Telephase: || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Interphase: DNA/Centrioles are replicated, Preparations for mitosis is finalized. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Early Prophase: sister chromatids are formed, and the centromere acts as a focal point for the mitotic spindles to form. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Late Prophase: Nuclear Envelope fragments, kinteochore microtubules pull on each chromosome from both poles and cause the chromosomes to gather in the equator of the cell. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Metaphase Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell with their centromeres precisely aligned at the equator of the spindle, forming the metaphase plate. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Anaphase: Chromatid split in two at the centromere to become a daughter chromosome. || Mitosis is the replication of a cell to form two daughter cells, however, cytokinesis is where the two cells are actually seperated and is the end of Mitosis. || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. DNA helix unwinds and hydrogen bonds between its base pairs are broken. Each nucleotide strand of DNA acts as a template for building a complementary strand. DNA polymerases work in only one direction so the DNA is synthesized in opposing directions (leading and lagging strand). Each DNA molecule formed is now half of the old strand and half of the newly assembled strand and it makes up a chromatid of a chromosome. || Chromatin makes up chromatids which make up chromosomes. ( Chromatin-> Chromatid-> Chromosome) || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">All cells with the excception of sex cells divide by mitosis. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Intracellular organization of nucleus & cytoplasm || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Identify the three main parts of a cell, and list the general functions of each. Plasma membrane is the barrier and outer boundary of the cell. Cytoplasm is the intracellular fluid that contains the organelles, which perform specific cell functions.Nucleus is the control center of cellular activity. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Explain how cytoplasm and cytosol are different. Cytoplasm is the cellular material between the nucleus and plasma memebrane, and cytosol is what helps make up the cytoplasm. Cytosol is a mixture made of mostly water with proteins, salts and sugars from which other cytoplasmic elements are suspended ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Membrane structure & function || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Describe how lipids are distributed in a cell membrane, and explain their functions. 75% phospholipids(lipid bilayer) it is the basic fabric of the membrane that keeps the intracellular and extracellular fluids in their proper place, 5% glycolipids,they are lipids with attached sugar groups and make that end of the glycolipid molecule polar, 20% cholesterol which increases membrane stabliity and fluidity. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Describe how carbohydrates are distributed in a cell membrane, and explain their functions. Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate rich area at the cell surface which provides highly specific biological markers by which cells recognize each other. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Describe how proteins are distributed in a cell membrane, and explain their functions. Proteins make up about half of the plasma membrane by mass and are responsible for most of the specialized membrane functions.Integral proteins are firmly inserted into the membrane and functions as transport proteins(channels and carriers), enzymes or receptors.Pheripheral proteins are loosely attached to integral proteins and functions as support on intracellular surface, involved in mechanical functions, and serves cell to cell links.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Mechanisms for movement of materials across cell membranes |||||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. With respect to the following membrane transport
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a. State the type of material moving in each process. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b. Describe the mechanism by which movement of material occurs in each process. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c. Discuss the energy requirements and, if applicable, the sources of energy for each process. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">d. Give examples of each process in the human body. ||
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Describe the effects of hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic conditions<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">on cells.
 * ^  |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Demonstrate various cell transport processes and, given appropriate information, predict the outcomes of these demonstrations. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Organelles |||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Define the term organelleby . Organelles are small cellar structures that carry out specific functions for each cell. ||
 * ^  |||||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. For each different type of organelle associated with
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a. Identify the organelle.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b. Describe the structure of the organelle.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c. Describe the function of the organelle
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Protein synthesis || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Define the terms genetic code, transcription and translation . Page 101-103  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Explain how and why RNA is synthesized. Page 101  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis .Page 105  ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cellular respiration (introduction) || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Define the term cellular respiration.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. With respect to glycolysis, the Krebs (citric acid or TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Somatic cell division |||||| <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including
 * ^  ||< <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a. Describe the events that take place in each stage. (Page 46-47 in lab book or page 98-99 in the lecture book)
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b. Identify cells that are in each stage.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c. Analyze the functional significance of each stage.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Describe DNA replication. pg. 97
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. Analyze the interrelationships among chromatin<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">, chromosomes and<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> chromatids.
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">5. Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by mitosis and examples of circumstances in the body that require mitotic cell division.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Reproductive cell division || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Describe the events that take place in each stage of meiosis I and meiosis lI. Prophase occures like in mitosis synapsis occurs. Homologous chromsomes come together to form tetrads. Metaphase l, tetrads align randomely on the spindle equator ,in preperation for annaphase. Unlike annaphase of mitosis the centromeres do not seperate in annaphase l of meosis. So the sister chromatids remain attached. However the homologous chromosomes do seperate and move toward opposite poles of the cell.Telephase l the nuclear envelopes reforms around the chromosomal masses, the spindle breaks down and chromatin reapears as telephase and cytokinesis are completed. The two daughter cells which are not haploid enter a second interphane like period called interkineses before meiosis ll occures. Then there is no second replication of DNA befor meiosis ll. Meiosis ll begins with the products of meiosis l, and undergoes a mitosis lide nuclear division process refer to as the equational division of meiosis. Metaphase and Annaphase ll the cell are the same as in meiosis l. Telephase ll and cytokenis produce 4 haploid cells each genetically different from the original mother cell. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Identify cells that are in each stage of meiosis I and meiosis II .pg 1035  ||
 * ^  || <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">3. Compare and contrast the general features of meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis l- takes the cell from one diploid to 2 haploid. Meiosis ll takes those haploids and makes 4 haploid cells each genetically different.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">4. Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis .Mitosis starts with a mother cell go thru PMAT and the result is 2 identical cell to the mother cell. Meiosis starts with the same mother cell but at the end of meosis l the two cells are haploid and the end of meiosis u have 4 haploid cell all different genetically from the mother.Mitosis is for norman cells. Meiosis is for the reproductive cells.  ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">5. Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by meiosis and examples of circumstances in the body that require meiotic cell division. Gametes divide by meiosis because they need to have half the number of chromosomes so that when the egg and sperm join that the resulting zygote will have the normal amount of chromosomes for that species.  ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Application of homeostatic mechanisms || <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Provide specific examples to demonstrate how individual cells respond to their environment (e.g., in terms of organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or regulation of cell cycle) in order to maintain homeostasis in the body. ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders || <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">1. Predict factors or situations that could disrupt organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the cell cycle. ||
 * ^  || <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">2. Predict the types of problems that would occur if the cells could not maintain homeostasis due to abnormalities in organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the cell cycle. ||

homeostasis lecture objectives
|| <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">General types of homeostatic mechanisms = =
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. List the components of a feedback loop and explain the function of each. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Compare and contrast positive and negative feedback in terms of the relationship between stimulus and response. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Explain why negative feedback is the most commonly used mechanism to maintain homeostasis in the body. ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Examples of homeostatic mechanisms || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Provide an example of a negative feedback loop that utilizes the nervous system to relay information. Describe the specific organs, structures, cells or molecules (receptors, neurons, CNS structures, effectors, neurotransmitters) included in the feedback loop. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Provide an example of a negative feedback loop that utilizes the endocrine system to relay information. Describe the specific cells or molecules (production cells, hormones, target cells) included in the feedback loop. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Provide an example of a positive feedback loop in the body. Describe the specific structures (organs, cells or molecules) included in the feedback loop. ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">The following four outcomes are also included with most of the other modules in Anatomy & Physiology I and II. They will be difficult to answer at this early point in the course, but are listed here to emphasize the importance of homeostasis in the study of anatomy and physiology. ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Application of homeostatic mechanisms || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how organ systems respond to maintain homeostasis ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2 . Explain<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> how different organ systems relate to one another to maintain homeostasis  ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left;">Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Predict factors or situations affecting various organ systems that could disrupt homeostasis. ||
 * ^  || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if various organ systems could not maintain homeostasis and allowed<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> regulated variables (body conditions) to move away from normal.  ||